Career Scope for Ocean Engineers and Naval Architects

Ocean Engineers have a wide range of employment opportunities world - wide. Because of the wide variety of work they are involved in and the difficulty to categorise the field comprehensively, the Ocean Engineers are mainly related to engineering field as designers and construction supervisors, they also have scope in areas like Consultancy, Marketing and Sales, Operations, Regulation, Surveying and Overseeing, Research and Development, Education and Training, etc.

Each type of work has its own distinctive character and offers opportunities for initiative and imagination in a wide variety of technical and managerial posts.

The work place may be a large company, a small group, a consultancy or a government department, but their scopes are wide.

As a Coastal Engineer, they are dealing with the dynamic interaction of ocean and its shore by developing shore protection systems like breakwaters, jetties, etc., and designing harbours, ports, etc., and also dealing with civil engineering issues in the coastal environment.

As Offshore Engineers, they design structures like steel jacket structures, concrete gravity platforms, tension - leg platforms, etc., which are capable of withstanding the severe ocean environment.

As an Environmental Engineer, they have to protect the oceans from the harmful effects of mankind's activities. They are involved in harvesting and / or utilizing the oceanic resources such as minerals, wave energy, thermal energy and tidal power.

Depending mainly on the type of Qualifications held and personal inclination, Ocean Engineers may become specialists in one field or develop broad experience in others.

Eventually they may find themselves in senior executive positions using their knowledge and experience of general management as well as their professional skills in engineering and project leadership.

Indeed, aided by the breadth of their education, training and experience, the professional Naval Architects and Ocean Engineers are even successful in top management positions in government, industry and commerce quite outside the offshore field.

Main Areas of Scope :

There are lots of opportunities For Ocean Engineers and Naval Architects in the private, educational, corporate, and governmental sectors.

Some career areas to consider are : Offshore Oil Recovery, Marine metals and corrosion, Environmental Protection, Global Climate Monitoring, Renewable Energy, Underwater Vehicles, Remote Sensing, Marine Transportation, or Naval Architecture and Defence. Therefore, some main areas of scope are as follows :

Design Office :

Ocean Engineers are by necessity innovative and creative personalities. They must have an understanding of the many facets of offshore structure design such as its function, appearance and especially importance at sea safety.

They must be team leaders, able to integrate the inputs of many others to achieve a balanced and coherent whole. As a Naval Architect, apart from the architectural aspects of ship form and layout, they must be able to use complex mathematical and physical models to ensure that the design is satisfactory technically and that it meets the safety rules and standards laid down by Classification Societies and Government Agencies.

Since, the design process demands the extensive employment of computer based information and communication systems. Ocean Engineers should also be well versed in computer software knowledge.

As a design office employee, they are employed by ship and boat builders, offshore constructors, design consultants, and for the ships and submarines of the Navy and the Ministry of Defence.

Major equipment manufacturers also employ teams of engineers, including Naval Architects and Ocean Engineers on the design of such products as propulsion systems, auxiliary systems sub sea production systems and control systems.

Field Engineer :

The task of the ship and boat builders and offshore constructor is to convert drawings and detailed specifications into real structures. A Naval Architect and Ocean Engineers specialising,, in. construction usually holds a management post, taking responsibility for the management of the whole yard / site or for sections of it such as planning, production or the complex operation of fitting out.

There should continuously strive to make construction work efficient through the adoption of new processes and practices and by better training for the work force. The Ocean Engineers must also organise the supply of materials and components, inspection and testing as well as the vital resources of manpower.

Repair work has much in common with construction. Ocean Engineers and Naval Architects in this field can become professional managers in future, who like the builders need to master modern management and associated techniques.

Emergency repair work often offers opportunities for ingenuity and on - the - spot improvisation, and in the offshore engineering world in particular repair frequently involves underwater technology.

Therefore, as a site engineer, they are employed in construction and repair include both large and small shipbuilders and repairers, and those involved in the maintenance and repair of naval ships, submarines, harbours, ports and other offshore structures.

Consultant :

As consultants, Ocean Engineers and Naval Architects provide clients with engineering solutions, technical and commercial guidance and project management for concept design studies, new offshore structure developments, new vessel constructions, refits and conversions.

Therefore, they are employed to give professional advice and technical support to customers of the offshore industry.

Ship Surveyor :

Naval Architects and Ocean Engineers employed by Classification Societies as Ship Surveyors are engaged world - wide in evaluating the safety of ships and marine structures using the Society's Rules and those of intergovernmental organisations such as the International Maritime Organisation.

Plans of ships to be built and eventually classed with the Society are scrutinised, and aspects of design such as strength, stability, and lifesaving approved before construction.

Also during construction, Ship Surveyors carry out inspections to ensure that the quality of the workmanship and materials used is in accordance with the rules and regulations.

Once the vessel or structure is in service, Ship Surveyors will continue to carry out inspections to ensure that any serious defects arising from operation are made good and that a safe and seaworthy structure is maintained.

Government departments employ Naval architects who deal mainly with the framing of safety regulations and the surveying of ships and equipment from the safety point of view.

Research and Development :

Offshore research, in general, enjoys a high reputation world - wide. The Naval Architects and Ocean Engineers, many with post - graduate qualifications, are engaged in research in universities and industry throughout the world.

Classification Societies also devote resources to research and development employing Naval Architects in this field.

This variety of work provides a rewarding challenge to the Ocean Engineers and Naval Architects, not only as engineers but also as managers, consultants, surveyors, scientists, etc.

Institutes offering the Naval Architecture and Ocean Engineering Courses :

The various institutes in India providing Bachelor and Master degree in Ocean Engineering and Naval Architecture are as follows :

S. No.	Institutes	Offered Courses
1	Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai - 600 036.	Ocean Engineering and Naval Architecture
2	Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur, Kharagpur - 721 302.	B.Tech - Ocean Engineering and Naval Architecture M.Tech - Ocean Engineering and Naval Architecture
3	National Institute of Technology Surathkal, Mangalore - 575025.	M. Tech in Marine Structures
4	National Institute of Technology Calicut, Calicut - 673 601.	M. Tech in Offshore Structures
5	Cochin University of Science and Technology, Cochin.	M.Tech in Ocean Technology
6	Chennai School of Ship Management, Mambakkam, Chennai - 600 048.	Diploma Program in Marine Engineering
7	College of Engineering (Autonomous), Andhra University, Visakhapatnam - 530 003.	B.E. Naval Architecture, M.E. Hydraulic, Coastal & Harbour Engineering
8	Institute of Shipbuilding Technology, Vasco da Gama, Goa - 403 802.	4 Year diploma Program in Shipbuilding Engineering

It is a new field and is making tremendous advancements. It is our only frontier - we know less about the oceans than we do about the moon - so it is new and extremely rewarding. There is so much we have yet to learn about our oceans. Therefore, it is for sure that the career opportunities in this field will absolutely increase further.

There are not enough ocean scientists or engineers to meet all the demands of the day. Also, tomorrow's greatest discoveries in science, medicine and life knowledge will come from the oceans.

Skills for a Naval Architect

The Job and What's Involved

Naval architects are responsible for the design, construction and repair of ships, boats, other marine vessels and offshore structures, including:

• Merchant ships, e.g. oil/gas tankers, cargo ships and cruise liners.
• Passenger and vehicle ferries.
• Warships, eg frigates, destroyers and aircraft carriers.
• Amphibious ships, e.g. submarines, semi-submersibles and underwater vehicles.
• Offshore drilling platforms.
• High-speed craft, e.g. hovercraft, multi-hull ships and hydrofoil craft.
• Workboats, e.g. fishing vessels, tugs, pilot vessels and rescue craft.
• Yachts, power boats and other recreational craft.

Some of the craft they work on are very large and complex, and all craft have to be safe and seaworthy. Although engineering on this scale involves whole teams of professional engineers in their respective fields, it is the naval architect who is responsible for co-ordinating the whole project.

Actual work activities vary depending on the type of company, project and role of the architect. They might specialise in one area such as:

- Design
- Construction and repair
- Consultancy
- Research and development
- Regulation, surveying and overseeing

Their work may include:

• Preparing design plans of the architecture of the vessel and its layout, using computer software.
• Working with complex computer and 3D models to check specifications.
• Ensuring that the design meets safety standards and is seaworthy.
• Sourcing materials and equipment.
• Co-ordinating the construction or repair work.
• Evaluating the safety of ships and marine structures.

Naval architects tend to work normal office hours, but may need to work additional hours to meet deadlines. They may be required to travel to shipyards or docks and this could involve spending some time away from home, possibly overseas.

Shipyards, docks and marinas can be noisy and dirty, and work onboard a craft may involve time in the engine room or other areas where there can be fumes, heat and noise. It may be necessary to work outside during bad weather and rough seas.

Office-based design work can involve sitting at a computer for long periods, while work onboard a vessel can mean a lot of walking, bending and climbing.

When visiting construction or repair sites, it may be necessary to wear protective clothing.

Naval architects can be self-employed or work on a contract basis - especially in the small or high-speed craft sectors.

Starting salaries range from around £20,000 to £24,000 a year. The pay for self-employed architects varies depending on their experience, the particular projects they are involved in, and the amount of time they work.

Getting Started with this Career Choice

With the decline in shipbuilding in the UK over the past 20 years, there are fewer shipyards (only four large commercial shipyards are currently in operation), and so fewer openings for naval architects working specifically on new vessels. However, the remaining shipyards are now busy building specialist vessels, particularly for the offshore industry and the Royal Navy.

There are also many opportunities in the design and construction of small craft and yachts. This is an expanding area as a result of the long UK coastline, navigable rivers and canals. Most jobs are based in coastal cities or towns.

Some naval architects work as ship surveyors for the classification societies or the Maritime and Coastguard Agency (MCA), assessing the safety of marine structures and ships. There are now almost 50 classification societies around the world. The main companies have offices in the UK and overseas, so there are opportunities to work in a variety of locations. Many naval architects work abroad, often on large-scale projects outside of Europe.

In all areas, competition for jobs is fierce.

Posts may be advertised in journals such as The Naval Architect and Offshore Marine Technology. There are also recruitment and skills-matching agencies that specialise in marine and engineering posts.

Education and Training

A degree in an engineering subject is usually essential. Relevant degree courses include naval architecture, marine technology or other disciplines of engineering closely related to naval architecture.

Entry to degree courses is with at least five GCSE's/S grades (A-C/1-3) and two A levels/three H grades, including maths and physics, or equivalent qualifications.

The Ministry of Defence (MOD) operates the Defence Engineering & Science Group (DESG) graduate scheme. The scheme gives science and engineering graduates training and work placements within a range of MOD departments.

School leavers may be able to train in marine engineering with the Royal Navy or Merchant Navy. Some organisations, including The Royal Institution of Naval Architects (RINA), offer scholarships to provide financial help during periods of study.

A Few More Exams You Might Need

A diploma or degree in naval architecture or a related subject is normally followed by four years training in design, engineering practice and management, before naval architects can become professionally qualified.

A Diploma will help you make a more informed choice about the type of learning that best suits you and about what kind of work or further study you may want to do afterwards.

Training is normally on the job. New recruits are usually given an individual training programme to meet their particular needs, and a senior engineer is often appointed to act as their mentor. Some companies run RINA and The Institute of Marine Engineering, Science and Technology (IMarEST) accredited training programmes. A full list is available on the RINA and IMarEST websites.

With a sufficient period of training and enough experience, a naval architect can become a member of RINA and register with the Engineering Council UK (ECUK) as a chartered or incorporated engineer.

Case Studies on Ship Structural Failures

Chronic Cracking in an Aluminum SWATH Research Vessel

Vessel Particulars

LOA: 117’-3 5/8”

Breadth: 53’-0”

Depth: 25’-0”

Draft: 12’-0”

Gross Tonnage: 499

Displacement: 419 LT

Complement: 26 (10 crew, 16 science)

Maximum Speed: 14.5 knots

Endurance: 4000 NM at 8 knots

Builder: SWATH Ocean Systems

Year Built: 1996

ID No.: 1038571

Class: None, COI and Load Line

Flag: US

Owner/ Operator: Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute, Moss Landing, CA

Vessel Type: SWATH (Small Waterplane Area Twin Hull), Diesel Electric Propulsion

Hull Material: Aluminum

Figure 1. Profile of R/V WESTERN FLYER

Summary of Structural Failure

R/V Western Flyer has experienced localized cracking to its aluminum structure during typical operations during virtually all of its twelve year life span. Various modifications have been implemented in an attempt to solve this problem.

Background

Design

R/V Western Flyer was designed and built by SWATH Ocean Systems in 1996 for Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute (MBARI). The design was based on successful SWATH Ocean Systems designs for smaller vessels. Although USCG was involved in the review of the design, extensive detailed structural analysis was not completed in the design phase.

R/V Western Flyer’s mission is to provide a stable platform for ROV operations for MBARI’s Tiburon in water up to 4000m. Because of the extreme water depth and the rapid changes in weather encountered in the Monterey Basin area, it is necessary for the R/V Western Flyer to be able to operate up to Sea State 5. In order to facilitate ROV deployment and retrieval, especially in higher sea states, an internal moon pool is utilized.

Figure 2 shows a typical transverse web frame. All structure is 5086 aluminum, except for isolated bulkhead and deckhouse framing that is 6061. Web frames are spaced every three feet, with transverse bulkheads every 15 feet.

Figure 2. Transverse Web Frame

Events leading to failure

During one of R/V Western Flyer’s early voyages, the bilge alarm in the steering flat was activated. The crew discovered water seeping through cracks in the transom. Further investigation located cracking in several other locations throughout the vessel. Weather conditions had been moderate (Sea State 3-4) from the starboard beam.

Detailed Description of Structural Failure

While the cracking in the transom was the result of coincident plate seams, butts and corners, the majority of the cracking was in transverse frames and watertight bulkheads in way of the haunch girder notch. Cracking in the transverse frames was primarily in locations without adequate bracketing in way of the notch. Some side shell cracking was seen in way of the transverse bulkheads. See Figure 3.

Figure 3. Haunch Girder Notch

Initial Analysis and Repair

In order to continue operating while extensive structural analysis was performed, the strategy of repair and monitoring was adopted. All cracks were repaired and brackets were installed on those frames without them previously. In order to assess the efficacy of the repair, operation was to proceed in worsening sea conditions with the possibility of altering course to minimize loading on the structure.

In the first two months of limited operation and vessel monitoring, over 100 new cracks developed. All of these cracks were at the ends of welds in the haunch area. A stress monitoring program was installed on the vessel to provide a visual and audible alarm on the bridge to alert the crew of a need to change course.

Two-dimensional finite element analysis was completed on a typical bulkhead and web frame. Loading on the models was determined based on beam seas in Sea States 3-5. The loading on the hull for a regular incident wave over a range of frequencies was calculated using MIT’s wave analysis program (WAMIT). The response in regular waves was applied to a Bretschneider spectrum to determine the extreme loads for each mode (roll, heave, pitch, etc.). Because the extreme forces do not occur together, combinations were created maximizing one mode at a time. The results of this initial FEA showed that even with brackets in place the stress in the haunch girder notch was over 40,000psi in Sea State 5. See Figure 4.

Figure 4. Stress in Transverse Bulkhead, Beam Sea, Sea State 5

Detailed Analysis

In order to understand more fully the response of the structure of the R/V Western Flyer, a global three dimensional finite element model of the entire hull and deckhouse was constructed. See Figure 5.

Figure 5. Global 3-D Finite Element Model

A pressure distribution over the wetted surface of the hull was developed using an equivalent irregular wave. The resulting loading is a squeezing/prying moment acting on the pontoons. This analysis was repeated for the vessel with the proposed modifications to assess their effectiveness. The design load for the modified vessel is higher than the existing due to changes in the pontoons to counteract weight addition.

Figure 6. Deflection Plot, Prying Condition

Results of the global FEA confirmed failures experienced in several areas of the vessel. High stresses were shown in the haunch girder notch areas and at the corners of the deckhouse bulkhead and deck intersections. Panel buckling was calculated (and had occurred) in the transverse structure aft of the moonpool and in areas of the deckhouse.

Modification

The following modifications were accomplished at Bay Ship and Yacht in Alameda, CA between 1998 and 1999.

• Faired the notch between the strut and haunch.
• Added half frames in way of the haunch.
• Deepened existing haunch frames.
• Added half frames aft of the moonpool.
• Increased stiffening in the deckhouse.
• Replaced aft bulkhead of house with thicker plate of stronger aluminum.
• Increased diameter of pontoons over a portion of their length to compensate for additional weight.

Figure 7 shows the effect of the modification to the haunch girder notch on the stress distribution.

Figure 7. Haunch/Strut Stress with/without Fairing

End Result

Unfortunately, the 1998 modifications were not sufficient to completely solve the cracking problem on R/V Western Flyer. She continued to experience cracking at the junction of the deckhouse and main deck. Because the deckhouse is stepped away from the side, the prying moment causes the deck to bend up around the house. In 2005, after various other attempts, a strut was added aft at Frame 28 to connect the hulls to resist prying. See Figures 8 and 9. Frame 28 was chosen because it coincides with transverse bulkheads above and below deck, specifically the aft house bulkhead. Because ROV operations are conducted through a moon pool, strut installation any further forward would interfere.

The crew reports no adverse effects on performance due to either the aft strut or the increase in pontoon diameter. Continued crack monitoring shows no additional cracking in way of the haunch or pontoon joints.

Figure 8. Global Model with Strut Installed

Figure 9. Pontoon Strut

Design Observation

In retrospect, there are certain features of the design of R/V Western Flyer that could have been improved in earlier phases. The first is the concave bracketing in way of the haunch joint. In theory this was done to reduce spray. The second is to have the deckhouse side inset from the hull side, especially without, adequate structural members below to help distribute the load where the house side crosses the below deck bulkhead.

While earlier incorporation of the pontoon strut might have obviated some structural modifications, it was ruled out in the initial design due to the interference with ROV operations through the moon pool. It is not likely that the strut alone would have eliminated all cracking problems, particularly in way of the haunch.

Acknowledgements

References:

[1] Dockter, M.E. and K. Schmidt, “SWATH Research Vessel: The Building of RV Western Flyer,” Marine Technology, July 1996.

[2] Van Slyke, Morgan, Leach and Etchemendy, “R/V Western Flyer – Hull Strength Upgrade,” SNAME Pacific Northwest Section, 17 April 1999.

Ballast Water Management

1. The introduction of invasive marine species into new environments by ships’ ballast water, attached to ships’ hulls and via other vectors has been identified as one of the four greatest threats to the world’s oceans. The other three are land-based sources of marine pollution, overexploitation of living marine resources and physical alteration/destruction of marine habitat.

2. Shipping moves over 80% of the world’s commodities and transfers approximately 3 to 5 billion tonnes of ballast water internationally each year. A similar volume may also be transferred domestically within countries and regions each year. Ballast water is absolutely essential to the safe and efficient operation of modern shipping, providing balance and stability to un-laden ships. However, it may also pose a serious ecological, economic and health threat.

3. Studies carried out in several countries have shown that many species of bacteria, plants and animals can survive in a potent form in the ballast water and sediment carried in ships, even after journeys of several months' duration. Subsequent discharge of ballast water or sediment into the waters of another port may result in the establishment of harmful aquatic organisms and pathogens which may pose threats to indigenous human, animal and plant life, and the marine environment. Although other media have been identified as being responsible for transferring organisms between geographically separated water bodies, ballast water discharge from ships appears to have been among the most prominent. .

CATASTROPHE IN THE WAITING

4. There are thousands of marine species that may be carried in ships’ ballast water; basically anything that is small enough to pass through a ships’ ballast water intake ports and pumps. These include bacteria and other microbes, small invertebrates and the eggs, cysts and larvae of various species. The problem is compounded by the fact that virtually all marine species have life cycles that include a planktonic stage or stages.

5. It is estimated that at least 7,000 different species are being carried in ships’ ballast tanks around the world. The vast majority of marine species carried in ballast water do not survive the journey, as the ballasting and deballasting cycle and the environment inside ballast tanks can be quite hostile to organism survival. Even for those that do survive a voyage and are discharged, the chances of surviving in the new environmental conditions, including predation by and/or competition from native species, are further reduced. However, when all factors are favourable, an introduced species by survive to establish a reproductive population in the host environment, it may even become invasive, out-competing native species and multiplying into pest proportions.

6. As a result, whole ecosystems are being changed. In the USA, the European Zebra Mussel Dreissena polymorpha has infested over 40% of internal waterways and may have required between US$750 million and US$1 billion in expenditure on control measures between 1989 and 2000. In southern Australia, the Asian kelp Undaria pinnatifida is invading new areas rapidly, displacing the native seabed communities. In the Black Sea, the filter-feeding North American jellyfish Mnemiopsis leidyi has on occasion reached densities of 1kg of biomass per m2. It has depleted native plankton stocks to such an extent that it has contributed to the collapse of entire Black Sea commercial fisheries. In several countries, introduced, microscopic, ‘red-tide’ algae (toxic dinoflagellates) have been absorbed by filter-feeding shellfish, such as oysters. When eaten by humans, these contaminated shellfish can cause paralysis and even death. The list goes on, hundreds of examples of major ecological, economic and human health impacts across the globe. It is even feared that diseases such as cholera might be able to be transported in ballast water.

7. India has more than 7500 kms long coast line with12 major ports. Average 5000 ships call in Mumbai port alone and receive 1.8 m tonnes of ballast water each year. Indian coasts are falling prey to the malicious Marine Bio invasion through ballast water. Through port baseline survey and research work, it is established that Mytilopsis sallei, a native of Sub-tropical Atlantic, is found in Mumbai and Vishakhapatnam ports in India.

8. Mytilopsis sallei is a mussel which has invaded Indian sea. This species accumulates in large quantity (10-12 kgs/m ) and creates several maintenance problems with regard to marine structures, equipment and machinery. This species is strong enough to survive in difficult marine climatic conditions and also in polluted and Oxygen deficient water.

TREATMENT TECHNOLOGY

9. Re-ballasting at sea, as recommended by the IMO guidelines, currently provides the best-available measure to reduce the risk of transfer of harmful aquatic organisms, but is subject to serious ship-safety limits. Even when it can be fully implemented, this technique is less than 100% effective in removing organisms from ballast water. Some parties even suggest that re-ballasting at sea may itself contribute to the wider dispersal of harmful species, and that island states located ‘down-stream’ of mid-ocean re-ballasting areas may be at particular risk from this practice. It is therefore extremely important that alternative, effective ballast water management and/or treatment methods are developed as soon as possible, to replace re-ballasting at sea. Significant research and development (R&D) efforts are underway by a number of scientific and engineering research establishments around the world, aimed at developing a more complete solution to this problem.

10. Options being considered include:-

(a) Mechanical treatment methods such as filtration and separation.

(b) Physical treatment methods such as sterilisation by ozone, ultra-violet light, electric currents and heat treatment.

(c) Chemical treatment methods such adding biocides to ballast water to kill organisms.

(d) Various combinations of the above.

11. All of these possibilities currently require significant further research effort. Major barriers still exist in scaling these various technologies up to deal effectively with the huge quantities of ballast water carried by large ships (e.g. about 60,000 tonnes of ballast water on a 200,000 DWT bulk carrier). Treatment options must not interfere unduly with the safe and economical operation of the ship and must consider ship design limitations. Any control measure that is developed must meet a number of criteria, including:

(a) It must be safe and reliable

(b) It must be environmentally acceptable

(c) It must be cost effective.

12. One of the problems currently faced by the global R&D community is that apart from the general criteria above, there are currently no internationally agreed and approved performance standards or evaluation system for the formal acceptance of any new techniques that are developed. In addition, many groups are working in isolation from each other, and there are no formal mechanisms in place to ensure effective lines of communication between the R&D community, governments and ship designers, builders and owners. These are vital if the R&D effort is to succeed.